Chapter Seven-Small Group Communication

Goal: To show how context affects communication; specifically, to understand the special characteristics of group communication, to examine potential problems that beset groups, to review the phases groups pass through, and to introduce some ways to strengthen group discussion skills.

• I. Group communication has special characteristics that distinguishes it from other forms of communication.
  • A. A group is a special kind of entity; "groupness" develops over time, and not all collections of people become true groups.
    • 1. In groups, members interact.
    • 2. In groups, members become interdependent.
    • 3. In groups, members share norms, values, and roles.
    • 4. In groups, members share a collective identity.
  • B. There is some controversy about the size of a small group.
    • 1. The lower limit is three persons.
      • a. In a triad as compared to a dyad, the channels of communication increase.
      • b. Triads tend to be less stable than dyads.
    • 2. The upper limit is that point at which members no longer recognize and relate to one another directly.
    • 3. The ideal size for a group is the smallest size capable of performing the task effectively.
  • C. Group communication has some unique advantages.
    • 1. Through group synergy, groups provide more input than do individuals.
    • 2. Cohesive groups provide support and commitment.
    • 3. Groups can meet members' interpersonal needs.
      • a. Groups can meet inclusion needs, the need to establish identity by associating with others.
      • b. Groups can satisfy control needs, the need to prove our worth and competence by making effective decisions.
      • c. Groups can meet affection needs, the need to develop close, caring relationships with others.
• II. To get the most from groups, individuals must effectively manage group interactions.
  • A. Group and individual needs must be balanced.
    • 1. During group socialization, individuals try to influence the group to meet their needs, whereas the group seeks to influence members to do what is best for it.
      • a. Groups and members constantly evaluate one another in order to determine how committed they are to one another.
      • b. When commitment level changes, a role transition will occur;
      • c. During the life of the group, members will change from prospective, to new, full, marginal, or ex-members.
      • d. If a group has high status, can get things done, and has a positive social atmosphere, members will feel high levels of commitment.
    • 2. It takes skill to find a balance between individual and group needs.
      • a. To be accepted, a group member must begin by earning idiosyncrasy credits.
      • b. Members must recognize the norms that govern group communication.
      • c. Adapting to group life is easier with support from mentors.
      • d. Members have a right to get something from the group in turn for helping the group get what it wants.
  • B. Task and maintenance roles must be balanced.
    • 1. One reason groups exist is to accomplish tasks; the output of the task dimension is productivity.
    • 2. Behaviors that help the group accomplish its task are called task roles. They include the following roles:
      • a. The initiator-contributor seeks new ideas.
      • b. The information seeker asks for pertinent facts.
      • c. The opinion seeker asks for clarification of values.
      • d. The information giver offers facts or relevant experiences.
      • e. The opinion giver states beliefs or pertinent opinions.
      • f. The elaborator thinks of examples or works out details.
      • g. The coordinator pulls together ideas and supervises subgroups.
      • h. The orienter summarizes what has occurred and asks questions.
      • i. The evaluator-critic compares performance to standards.
      • j. The energizer stimulates group involvement.
      • k. The procedural technician takes on routine tasks.
      • l. The recorder writes down suggestions and takes minutes.
    • 3. Groups must also devote energy to creating a positive social atmosphere; the output of this maintenance dimension is group cohesiveness.
    • 4. Behaviors that enhance the social climate of the group are called maintenance roles.
      • a. The encourager accepts and praises others.
      • b. The harmonizer relives tension and mediates disputes.
      • c. The compromiser seeks a middle-ground solution.
      • d. The gatekeeper-expediter keeps communication channels open.
      • e. The standard setter expresses social standards.
      • f. The group observer offers feedback about social issues.
      • g. The follower accepts others' ideas and serves as audience.
    • 5. Personal goals that do not help the group reach its basic goals are called negative roles.
      • a. The dominator takes over the discussion.
      • b. The blocker prolongs or stops decisions.
      • c. The self-confessor uses group for personal therapy.
      • d. The help-seeker asks group for sympathy and compliments.
      • e. The recognition seeker boasts about own accomplishments.
      • f. The special-interest pleader has a hidden agenda.
      • g. The playboy or playgirl mocks serious behavior.
      • h. The joker or clown uses humor to divert group from task.
    • 6. Members must learn role flexibility.
  • C. Groups must guard against groupthink, a situation that occurs when groups become over confident.
    • 1. Groupthink is a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.
    • 2. There are several symptoms of groupthink.
      • a. Groupthink involves an illusion of invulnerability on the part of members.
      • b. Members believe in the morality of their own group.
      • c.They hold shared stereotypes of outsiders.
      • d. Problems are dismissed with collective rationalization.
      • e. Doubts are self-censored so that an illusion of unanimity occurs.
      • f Pressures are put on dissenters.
      • g. The key leader is protected by self-appointed mind-guards.
    • 3. By assigning members to act as devil's advocates and by holding second chance meetings, members can guard against groupthink.
• III. Groups go through identifiable phases.
  • A. Using zero-history LGDs, researchers have mapped stages in the life of a group.
  • B. Tuckman identified five stages in decision-making groups: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
  • C. Fisher found four phases.
    • 1. In the orientation phase, members experience primary tension; their communication is tentative, ambiguous, and formal as they try to find aplace for themselves in the group.
    • 2. In the conflict phase, members experience secondary tension as they disagree about task and struggle to define leadership roles. Communication is noisy and argumentative.
    • 3. Secondary tension dissipates and leadership issues are resolved in the emergence phase. Ambiguity is used to back down from previous positions.
    • 4. In the reinforcement phase, members bolster their decision through use of favorable comments and self-congratulation.
  • D. Poole offers an alternative multiple sequence model.
    • 1. He believes groups develop simultaneously on three different tracks: task, topic, and relation tracks.
    • 2. If a group reaches consensus on all three tracks at once, a global phase like those identified by Fisher and Tuckman occurs; in other cases, work on one track continues after work on the other tracks is done.
  • E. Leader emergence also follows a temporal sequence.
    • 1. At first all members are in contention for leadership.
    • 2. The first to be eliminated are nonparticipators or those who are rigid and closed-minded.
    • 3. Next, other members drop out to take on the role of lieutenants to other more powerful members. Often two factions emerge, each with a leader and lieutenant.
    • 4. Finally, one coalition drops out.
    • 5. Certain behaviors will mean instant elimination:
      • a. Be absent as often as possible.
      • b. Contribute as little as possible.
      • c. Volunteer to be record keeper.
      • d. Be subservient and acquiescent.
      • e. Be rude and verbally aggressive at first, and apathetic later. Become the group's joker.
      • g. Come across as a know-it-all.
      • h. Show contempt for leadership.
• IV. There are ways to become a more effective group communicator.
  • A. An effective group communicator knows how to create a supportive climate.
    • 1. A defensive climate in which members feel threatened can be brought about by several kinds of behaviors.
      • a. Evaluation occurs when members are judgmental.
      • b. Control occurs when members try to force their will on others.
      • c. Strategy occurs when members' follow hidden agendas.
      • d. Neutrality occurs when members are indifferent.
      • e. Superiority occurs when some members feel better than others.
      • f. Having too great a sense of certainty can also create defensiveness.
    • 2. A supportive climate allows group productivity. By acting in the following ways, members can ensure a positive group atmosphere.
      • a. Description involves sharing one's feelings without assigning blame.
      • b. Taking a problem orientation means collaborating to find a solution.
      • c. Spontaneity means open and honest communication.
      • d. Empathy tells others you understand their thoughts and feelings.
      • e. Equality means valuing others' opinions.
      • f. Provisionalism is a willingness to listen openly to others' ideas.
    • B. Problem-solving effectiveness can be enhanced by knowing some of the special techniques that have been developed by small group experts.
      • 1. By knowing how to use the standard agenda, group members can follow an orderly pattern in thinking about problems.
        • a. The first step is to identify a problem clearly
        • b. The second is to analyze it by identifying restraining and helping forces.
        • c. The third step involves clearly understanding the criteria they will use to judge solutions.
        • d. The fourth step is solution generation.
        • e. The fifth step is solution evaluation and selection.
        • f. The final step is implementation.
      • 2. Through brainstorming, members can increase creativity.
        • a. Members are encouraged to generate as many ideas as they can as quickly as possible without evaluation.
        • b. Only after ideas are generated, are members allowed to evaluate them.
        • c. Additional ways to generate new ideas include: the part-changing method, the checkerboard method, and the find-something-similar method.
      • 3. Use of nominal group technique can be helpful when time or opportunity for actual interaction is at a minimum.
        • a. Individuals generate ideas on their own and then meet to clarify those ideas.
        • b. Then members individually rank favorite ideas.
        • c. Potential dominance and censorship problems are eliminated in this way.
      • 4. Many other methods exist to guide group problem solving.
    • C. Learning how to use special formats for public discussion can be extremely useful for those who wish to use group discussion to communicate with larger audiences.
      • 1. A symposium is a form of public discussion in which experts give brief, prepared speeches on topics of general concern. Although each participant speaks individually, contributions are coordinated by a leader who introduces the problem and the discussants and offers a summary.
      • 2. A forum is a freewheeling discussion in which audience members are discussants. The moderator must keep participants on track and make sure everyone is heard.
      • 3. In a panel discussion, experts discuss a problem as an audience listens. The key to moderating or participating is to be well-informed, to listen carefully, and to make sure the discussion is coherent.
      • 4. To increase audience involvement, a public speaker can ask audience members to break into buzz groups, small groups that respond to questions raised in the speech. After deliberation, each group reports back to the entire assembly.